Did I mention I went down a rabbit hole of exhaustive research? More to come:
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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8yWH_CxlMaQ
Video about the ship and firing the guns.
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https://ussconstitutionmuseum.org/2016/05/04/sick-bay-away/
There is no doubt that a sailor on board a ship like Constitution lived a hard life. His daily duties put his life and limbs in jeopardy. Constantly exposed to variable weather, to heat and cold, his good health was often sacrificed for the good of the ship and his shipmates.
Luckily, the Navy made provision in its laws and customs to take care of sick and hurt sailors. The accommodations for the sick on board a sailing warship might seem crude, if not downright cruel, to us today, but access to free medical care administered by a trained doctor was a perk few laboring men on shore could have enjoyed.
Mild indisposition was not enough to excuse a sailor from duty, but severe sickness, disease, and injuries often earned him a stay in the ship’s infirmary. Called the “sick bay,” or “sick berth,” the ship’s hospital was a place where the sick could be nursed back to health, isolated from the rest of the crew. Herman Melville, in his novel White Jacket, describes the sick bay on board the fictional frigate Neversink:
“The sick-bay is that part of a man-of-war where the invalid seamen are placed; in many respects it answers to a public hospital ashore. As with most frigates, the sick-bay of the Neversink was on the berth-deck—the third deck from above. It was in the extreme forward part of that deck, embracing the triangular area in the bows of the ship. It was, therefore, a subterranean vault, into which scarce a ray of heaven’s glad light ever penetrated, even at noon.” [1]
Melville drew on his experiences sailing on board the USS United States in the 1840s. This is an important detail, because by that date, the location of the sick bay had been firmly established. Crammed into the bow of the ship on the berth deck, the sick bay was removed from the hustle and bustle of the gun deck and the periodic tumult that came to the berth deck when the watches changed. And yet, as we dig deeper into the details of life on board American warships at the beginning of the 19th century, it seems the location of the sick bay, and its usefulness as a place of recuperation for the sick, was in flux.
The first indication that the sick bay was perhaps not always placed in the bow comes from Navy doctor William P.C. Barton in 1814. Barton was deeply concerned about the quality of the air that patients were exposed to. He wrote,
“The sick-bay in double-decked vessels, is usually placed amidships, and is separated from the other part of the berth-deck only by means of a tarpaulin, or canvass curtain, and sometimes not even by these.
From the situation of the bay, then, it is necessarily exposed to the damp air of the cable-tier, as well as the cold air of the mid-hatch above it, which is generally open, at its after end; and to the unpleasant smell of the fore-hold, where the beef, pork, &c. are kept; as well as the cold air that blows down the fore hatch, at its forward end. The screens or curtains of which I have spoken, are but ineffective barriers to these unhealthful currents. Added to this, the berth-deck, according to the existing usage of the navy, is frequently, if not daily, wetted. Can any place, then, be conceived of, better calculated to injure the patients and distress the surgeon, then such a sick-bay?” [2]
Barton was not merely a complainer, but was also a reformer. He offered this suggestion:
“I see no reason why the sick-bay should not be constructed farther aft, or chock forward: that is to say, between the steerage and root of the main-mast, or forward of the fore-mast. It should, too, be encompassed or partitioned off by moveable bulk-heads, lined with baize, and should be ventilated by tubes from the gun or main-decks. It should be furnished with small and well-slung cots, in such number as it will conveniently contain. In the summer season, perhaps, it would be more conducive to health and comfort, to have the sick-bay amid-ships, where it now usually is placed; but I have seen too much of the inconvenience and danger of placing sick men in this place in the winter season, not to think it highly necessary that some change should be made.”[3]
The concern for fresh air was foremost in the minds of naval doctors, because according to the medical theory of the day, bad air caused and contributed to a wide range of illnesses. A note in Constitution’s logbook on December 29, 1814 makes this connection explicitly: “Got the sick off the birth deck and birthed them under the half deck for the benefit of the air.” [4]
If it made medical sense to change the location of the sick bay from next to the main hatch to some place farther forward, why wasn’t this done without delay? Why did the navy’s medical corps have to fight for the change? Tradition and long usage are hard nuts to crack. Perhaps an even more convincing answer was that the British had been doing the same thing for a long while.
In this detail of Augustus Earle’s painting “Divine service at it is usually performed on board a British Frigate at Sea” (exhibited at the Royal Academy in 1837, but based on drawings made on board HMS Hyperion in 1820), a sick sailor reposes on a swinging cot set up in the midst of the frigate’s gundeck. This sort of cot was used in sick bays on both British and American warships, and were also employed as sleeping cots by officers. National Maritime Museum, Greenwich, BHC1119.
As in many other details, the US Navy followed British practice. A British Navy Office order of March 22, 1803 regulated the placement of “sick berths” for frigates. It was a space 11 feet wide and 15 feet long located on the port side of the lower deck, beside the main hatch. As first delineated, these berths were separated from the rest of the deck by canvas screens. In March 1808 the screens were ordered to be replaced with “deal” or pine boards. [5] American naval surgeons would have experienced these arrangements while visiting British ships in the Mediterranean during the Barbary War and afterwards. Why not adopt similar practices on board their own ships?
“I will now descend a story lower: we come to the Birth deck so called, because originally used for swinging the men’s hammocks during the night, though the main deck is now also employed for that purpose. . . . The birth deck however, properly so called extends only a little abaft the mainmast: in its centre is the sick bay, a room with bulkheads of open work and forming our hospital, now well filled, for a large number of our men sick. This deck is supplied with air by a range of air ports twelve inches by eight, a few feet above the water mark; they are closed at sea.” [6]
[1] Herman Melville, White Jacket, or The World in a Man-of-War (Chicago: Northwestern University Press, 1970), 325-326.
[2] William P. C. Barton. A Treatise Containing a Plan for the Internal Organization and Government of Marine Hospitals in the United States: Together with a Scheme for Amending and Systematizing the Medical Department of the Navy (Philadelphia: Edward Parker & Philip H. Nicklin, 1814), 237-38.
[3] Ibid.
[4] The “half deck” is the portion of the gun deck just before the captain’s cabin
[5] Robert Gardiner, Frigates of the Napoleonic Wars (Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 2000), 101-102. In British ships-of-the-line, sick bays were typically located forward on the main gun deck, under the forecastle. See Dr. John Gray to William P.C. Barton, April 19, 1811, in Barton’s Treatise, 151.
[6] George Jones, Sketches of Naval Life, with Notices of Men, Manners and Scenery, on the Shores of the Mediterranean, in a Series of Letters from the Brandywine and Constitution Frigates, 2 vols. (New Haven: Hezekiah Howe, 1829), 4-5.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Navy_ranks,_rates,_and_uniforms_of_the_18th_and_19th_centuries
Ranks and positions
Naval ranks and positions of the 18th and 19th-century Royal Navy were an intermixed assortment of formal rank titles, positional titles, as well as informal titles used on board oceangoing ships. Uniforms played a major role in shipboard hierarchy, since those positions allocated a formal uniform by navy regulations were generally considered of higher standing, even if not by rank.
Shipboard hierarchy
In the 18th century Royal Navy, rank and position on board ship was defined by a mix of two hierarchies, an official hierarchy of ranks and a conventionally recognized social divide between gentlemen and non-gentlemen.[2] Royal Navy ships were led by commissioned officers of the wardroom, which consisted of the captain, his lieutenants, as well as embarked Royal Marine officers, all of whom were officers and gentlemen. The higher ranked warrant officers on board, the Sailing Master, Purser, Surgeon and Chaplain held a warrant from the Navy Board but not an actual commission from the crown. Warrant officers had rights to mess and berth in the wardroom and were normally considered gentlemen; however, the Sailing Master was often a former sailor who had "come through the ranks" therefore might have been viewed as a social unequal. All commissioned and warrant officers wore a type of uniform, although official Navy regulations clarified an officer uniform in 1787 while it was not until 1807 that masters, along with pursers, received their own regulated uniform.[3]
Next came the ship's three "standing officers", the Carpenter, Gunner and Boatswain (Bo'sun), who along with the Master were permanently assigned to a vessel for the purposes of maintenance, repair, and upkeep. Standing officers were considered the most highly skilled seaman on board, and messed and berthed with the crew. As such, they held a status separate from the other officers and were not granted the privileges of a commissioned or warrant officer if they were captured.[3]
"Cockpit mate" was a colloquial term for petty officers who were considered gentlemen and officers under instruction and messed and berthed apart from the ordinary sailors in the Cockpit. This included both midshipmen, who were considered gentlemen and officers under instruction, and master's mates, who derived their status from their role as apprentices to the sailing master. A midshipman outranked most other petty officers and lesser warrant officers, such as the Master-at-arms.[4][5] Boys aspiring for a commission were often called young gentlemen instead of their substantive rating to distinguish their higher social standing from the ordinary sailors.[6] Occasionally, a midshipman would be posted aboard a ship in a lower rating such as able seaman but would eat and sleep with his social equals in the cockpit (all Midshipman would be 'rated able' at some point in their service – it was a requirement for them to have been so before they could stand as a Mate, another requirement for promotion to Lieutenant).[7][N 1]
The remainder of the ship's company, who lived and berthed in the common crew quarters, were the petty officers and seamen. Petty officers were seamen who had been "rated" to fill a particular specialist trade on board ship. This rating set the petty officers apart from the common seaman by virtue of technical skill and slightly higher education. No special uniform was allocated for petty officers, although some Royal Navy ships allowed such persons to don a simple blue frock coat to denote their status.
Seamen were further divided into two grades, these being ordinary seaman and able seaman. Seamen were normally assigned to a watch, which maintained its own hierarchy consisting of a watch captain in charge of a particular area of the ship. Grouped among the watches were also the landsmen, considered the absolute lowest rank in the Royal Navy and assigned to personnel, usually from press gangs, who held little to no naval experience.
Minors in the Royal Navy
Midshipman Henry William Baynton wears the single breasted blue frock coat with white collar tabs.
The Royal Navy actively employed children and minors within their ranks, and indeed joining the Royal Navy as a boy was an often an unwritten prerequisite for a path towards an officer commission. Positions for minors began with the generic term "ship's boy" which was open to young boys between the ages of eight to twelve, although there was no established cutoff and there are records of boys as old as 15 to 17 joining ships as boys.
Once a boy, further advancement could be obtained through various specialties. A cabin boy assisted with the ship's kitchen, as well as other duties, while a powder monkey helped in the ship's armory. One of the highest positions for a boy was that of "officer's servant". This position was usually reserved for "young gentlemen" who joined a ship between the ages of 12 and 15 and was seen as a preparatory to becoming a midshipman.
Prior service as a ship's boy was recorded as sea-service; officers' servants could further credit their sea time towards the mandatory requirement for sea time in order to attempt the Lieutenants' Commission Board. After the Age of Sail ended, the position of ship's boy became an actual Royal Navy rank known as "Boy seaman".
For general information on the rank of lieutenant, including army and air force use, see Lieutenant.
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Lieutenant[nb 1] (abbreviated Lt, LT, LT(N), Lt(N), Lieut and LEUT, depending on nation) is a commissioned officer rank in many nations' navies. It is typically the most senior of junior officer ranks. In most navies, the rank's insignia may consist of two medium gold braid stripes, the uppermost stripe featuring an executive curl in many Commonwealth of Nations; or three stripes of equal or unequal width.
The now immediately senior rank of lieutenant commander was formerly a senior naval lieutenant rank. Many navies also use a subordinate rank of sub-lieutenant. The appointment of "first lieutenant" in many navies is held by a senior lieutenant.
A navy lieutenant ranks higher than an army
lieutenant; the navy rank of lieutenant is a NATO
OF-2 (US grade O-3) and ranks with an army
captain.
From at least 1580,[1] the lieutenant on a ship had been the officer immediately subordinate to the captain. Before the English Restoration, lieutenants were appointed by their captains, and this inevitably led to abuses and to the widespread appointment of men of insufficient qualification. In 1677, Samuel Pepys, while he was Chief Secretary to the Admiralty, introduced the first examination for lieutenant,[2] and thereafter their seniority was dated from the passing of this examination.
A lieutenant was numbered by his seniority within the ship on which he served, so that a frigate (which was entitled to three) would have a first, a second, and a third lieutenant. A first-rate ship was entitled to six, and they were numbered accordingly. At first, a lieutenant's commission was given only for the particular ship in which he served, but after the loss of HMS Wager in 1741 and the subsequent mutiny, the Royal Navy changed its policy and lieutenants were given more general commissions upon passing their examination.[1]
During the early days of the naval rank, some lieutenants could be very junior indeed, while others could be on the cusp of promotion to captain; those lieutenants ranged across present-day army ranks from a second lieutenant through to a lieutenant colonel. As the rank structure of navies stabilized, and the ranks of commander, lieutenant commander, and sub-lieutenant were introduced, the rank of naval lieutenant became less wide-ranging and is today the equivalent of an army captain (NATO OF-2 or US O-3).
In the United States Navy, promotion to lieutenant is governed by Department of Defense policies derived from the Defense Officer Personnel Management Act of 1980. DOPMA guidelines suggest that 95% of lieutenants (junior grade) should be promoted to lieutenant after serving a minimum of two years at the lower rank.
Rank insignia
The insignia of a lieutenant in many navies, including the Royal Navy,[3] consists of two medium gold braid stripes (top stripe with loop) on a navy blue or black background. This pattern was copied by the United States Navy and various air forces for their equivalent ranks grades, except that the executive curl is removed (see flight lieutenant).
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United Kingdom |
The first lieutenant (1st Lt or 1LT) in the Royal Navy and other Commonwealth navies, is a post or appointment, rather than a rank. Historically, the lieutenants in a ship were ranked in accordance with seniority, with the most senior being termed the first lieutenant and acting as the second-in-command. Although lieutenants are no longer numbered by seniority, the post of "first lieutenant" remains.
In minor war vessels, destroyers and frigates, the first lieutenant (either a lieutenant or lieutenant commander) is second in command, executive officer (XO) and head of the executive branch; in larger ships, where a commander of the warfare specialisation is appointed as the executive officer, a first lieutenant (normally a lieutenant commander) is appointed as his deputy. The post of first lieutenant in a shore establishment carries a similar responsibility to that of the first lieutenant of a capital ship.
Position |
Status |
Appointing Agency |
Messing & berthing |
Uniform |
Notes |
|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Commissioned officer |
Great Cabin |
Blue frock coat |
Special grade for captains in charge of multiple vessels[N 3] |
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Vessel commanding officer |
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Blue frock coat |
Non-rated ship captain. |
|||||
Wardroom |
Division officer/watch officer |
|||||
Warrant officer |
Ship's captain |
No established uniform – recipients would wear the uniform of the last grade held |
Later known as sub-lieutenant[N 5] |
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Blue frock coat with |
Highest ranked warrant officer |
|||||
Ship's accountant, responsible for supplies |
||||||
Ship's medical officer |
||||||
Only present on larger vessels |
||||||
Cockpit officer |
Various methods for appointment |
Cockpit |
Blue frock coat, |
Officer candidate position |
||
Midshipman's mate |
Cockpit mate |
Blue frock coat |
Special grade reserved for master's mates who had passed the examination for lieutenant |
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Could also be rated as "second master" |
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Surgeon's mate |
Sick and Hurt Board[N 6] |
Ship's medic on smaller vessels |
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Civilian |
Typically hired by captain |
Civilian clothing |
Clerical duties on board ship |
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School teacher |
Only present on larger ships. Primary duty to instruct midshipmen in academic matters |
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Crew's messing |
A more senior cook and servant, usually reserved for flagships and larger vessels |
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Normally an older retired or injured seaman |
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Gunner |
Standing officer |
Shipboard appointment by captain |
Blue frock coat |
In charge of all ship's armaments |
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Most experienced deck seaman aboard |
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Shipboard issued |
Head of the carpenter's team |
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Petty officer |
Senior petty officers |
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Ropemaker |
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Sailmaker |
Mid-grade petty officer |
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Yeoman |
Two on board: |
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Deck hand specialist petty officer |
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Helmsman on board the ship |
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Worked directly for the ship's purser |
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Ship's corporal |
Assistant to the master-at-arms |
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Watch captains |
Experienced seaman |
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Armourer's mate |
Junior petty officer |
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Gunner's mate |
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Boatswain's mate |
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Caulker's mate |
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Carpenter's mate |
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Sailmaker's mate |
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Quartermaster's mate |
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Gunsmith |
Seaman |
Seaman specialists |
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Quarter gunner |
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Carpenter's crew |
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Seaman with more |
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Seaman with at least one year experience |
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Seaman with less than one year experience |
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Boy |
Servant |
Lowest possible position on board, |
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Promotion and advancement
Illustrated commission path for a Royal Navy lieutenant
Promotion path of British flag officers
Promotion and advancement within the 18th and 19th century Royal Navy varied depending on the status of the sailor in question. At the lower levels, most inexperienced sailors began in the rank of landsman – those joining ships at a very young age were typically entered in the navy as cabin boys or officers' servants.
After a year at sea, landsmen were normally advanced to ordinary seaman. Three more years, with appropriate ability displayed, would see a sailor advanced to able seaman. For the "common seaman", this level is normally where the career path ended and many sailors spent their entire Royal Navy careers as able seaman on various vessels.
Advancement into the petty officer positions required some level of technical skill. Petty officer appointments were typically made by a ship's captain – sailors could also be "rated on the books" as a petty officer when a ship was in port searching for a crew[N 7] Honesty was implied, as a sailor falsely claiming experience in order to rate a billet on board ship would be quickly discovered once at sea.
Senior petty officers could also be rated as a standing officer, of which only three such positions normally existed (boatswain, carpenter, and gunner). Standing officers remained with a vessel during lay-up and maintenance, and also were known to be highly valued due to their skill and experience.
Warrant officers were given their positions by various certification boards and had nearly the same rights and respect as commissioned officers, including access to the quarterdeck and wardroom. Advancement into the commissioned officer grades required a royal appointment, following a certification by the lieutenant's examination board. Board eligibility was most often achieved by serving as a midshipman, although the career path of a master or master's mate also permitted this opportunity.
Once commissioned, lieutenants would be rated on board based on seniority, such as "1st lieutenant", "2nd lieutenant", "3rd lieutenant", etc. with the 1st lieutenant filling the modern day role of executive officer and second-in-command. Lieutenants, like ordinary sailors, were required to be signed on to various vessels due to manpower needs. If a lieutenant could not find a billet, the officer was said to be on "half pay" until a sea billet could be obtained.
The title of commander was originally[9] a temporary position for lieutenants placed in charge of smaller vessels. Successful commanders (who were known by courtesy on board their own ships as "captain") could aspire for promotion to captain which was known as "making post". Such post captains were then assigned to rated vessels in the rating system of the Royal Navy. Once a captain, advancement to admiral was strictly determined by seniority – if a captain served long enough for more senior officers to retire, resign, or die, he would eventually become an admiral. One distinguishing element among captain was, however, determined by the rating of the vessel they commanded. The captain of a sixth rate, for instance, was generally junior to a captain of a first rate.
Watch organization
Royal navy vessels operated on a number of parallel hierarchies in addition to formal ranks and positions, paramount of which was the vessel's watch organization.[10] Watches were stood 24 hours a day and divided into "watch sections" each of which was led by an "officer of the watch", typically a lieutenant, midshipman, or master's mate (the captain and master did not stand watch but were on call 24 hours a day)
The heart of the watch were the watch teams, each led by a petty officer known as a captain (separate entirely from the vessel's commanding officer). There were six watch teams on most Royal Navy vessels, divided into three "deck" teams and three "aloft" teams. The aloft teams were manned by sailors known as "topmen" and were considered the most experienced men aboard. In all, the six watch teams were as follows:
Aloft: Fore topman, main topmen, mizzen topmen
Deck: Forecastle men, waisters, afterguard
The navigation and steering of the vessel from the quarterdeck was handled by a special watch team of quartermasters. Furthermore, the ship's boatswain and his mates were interspersed among the various watch teams to ensure good order and discipline. The remainder of the ships' company, who did not stand a regular watch, included the ship's carpenter's crew and the gunnery teams (in charge of the maintenance of the ship's guns). Any other person on board who did not stand watch was collective referred to as an "idler" but was still subject to muster when the "all hands on deck" was called by the boatswain.
Quarters and stations
In addition to the standard watch organization of a Royal Navy vessel, additional organizational hierarchies included the division, headed by a lieutenant or midshipman, mainly for the purposes of mustering as well as messing and berthing; divisions were typically present only on the larger rated vessels.
The term "Action Stations" was a battle condition in which a Royal Navy vessel manned all of its guns with gun crews, stood up damage control and emergency medical teams, and called the ship's senior officers to the quarterdeck in order to direct the ship in battle. A sailor's action station was independent of their watch station or division, although in many cases groups of sailors manning the same action station were assigned from the same division or watch section.
A unique readiness condition of some Royal Navy vessels was known as "in ordinary". Such vessels were usually permanently moored with masts and sails removed, and manned only by a skeleton crew. In ordinary vessels did not maintain full watch sections and were normally maintained as receiving ships, shore barges, or prison ships.[citation needed]
James Cook wearing a 1770s era Royal Navy captain's uniform
Admiral Sir Peter Warren wearing the 1748-1767 pattern Flag Officer's dress uniform.
Chronology of uniforms
Royal Navy shoulder insignia
Royal Navy admiral insignia. The rank of "fleet admiral" was known in its full form as "admiral of the fleet".
1748–67
The first uniforms of the Royal Navy
were issued to commissioned officers only and consisted of a blue
dress uniform or 'suit', which featured 'boot cuffs'; based upon
formal court wear of the time, and a 'frock', which was a simpler
uniform that featured 'mariners cuffs' which were used to turn back
the cuffs of the coat when strenuous or dirty work was being done.
The frock also featured (unlike the suit which was single-breasted)
double breasted lapels that could be worn either buttoned back or
worn buttoned across the chest to protect the wearer from the
elements.
Both the dress suit and frock worn by lieutenants were rather plain, the dress suit featuring plain white boot cuffs and the frock being plain blue with no other distinction. Although included in the 1748 dress regulations, midshipmen were only issued with a frock to act as an all-purpose uniform. This featured (from 1758) the white 'turnback' that is still used as rank insignia for midshipmen to the present day. Both the dress 'suit' and undress 'frock' uniforms were worn with blue breeches and black cocked hats; which were gold-laced and featured a black cockade.
Admiral Sir Charles Saunders wearing the 1748-1767 pattern 'frock' or undress coat.
1767–1774
The next major change in Royal Navy
uniforms occurred in the 1767 when the dress uniform 'suit' was
abolished and the frock became an all-purpose uniform. This state of
affairs continued until 1774; when the former frock became the full
dress uniform, and a new working or 'undress' uniform was introduced.
Enlisted sailors had no established uniform, but were often issued
standardized clothing by the ship on which they served to create a
uniform appearance among seaman.
1774–1787
In this year the former 'all purpose'
uniform became full dress. A simpler blue 'frock' was introduced for
everyday purposes. In 1783, flag officers were granted a new full
dress uniform; again a heavily embroidered single-breasted coat as
before, but for the first time denoted what rank the bearer was by
stripes on the cuffs; three for Admirals, two for vice admirals, and
one for rear admirals.
1787–1795 1787 saw the
slashed cuffs of the full dress for commissioned officers replaced
with white round cuffs with three buttons (the lapels and cuffs were
blue for Masters and Commanders). For flag officers, the embroidery
on the coat and cuffs was replaced with lace. This year also saw
Warrant officers (Masters,
Surgeons, Pursers,
Boatswains, and
Carpenters) being granted a standardised, plain blue uniform as well.
Midshipmen's cuffs were changed from slashed cuffs to blue round
cuffs with three buttons as well.
1795–1812
The most significant uniform change of the
late 1700s was in 1795 when flag officers, captains and commanders
were granted epaulettes.
Over the next fifty years, epaulettes were the primary means of
determining officer rank insignia.
1812-1827
The
1812 pattern uniform reinstated the white collars and cuffs that had
been replaced by blue in 1795. There was also a blue undress uniform
that was devoid of lace and white facings as well.
Captain Sir George Ralph Collier wearing the 1812-1825 pattern undress coat.
1825-1827
1825 saw the introduction of the
'undress tailcoat'; which was a blue tailcoat, similar to that worn
by civilians at the time, that was worn with the epaulettes.
1827-1830
A radical change in the full dress coat
occurred in 1827, when a new pattern was introduced that was very
similar to the undress coat of the 1812-1825 pattern. Instead of
sloping away from the chest, the tails of the coat were now cut away
at the waist (like a modern-day civilian tail-coat) and were ordered
to be buttoned up at all times. Midshipmen, Masters, Volunteers of
the First and Second class and Surgeons were to keep their existing
uniforms but were to wear them fully buttoned up. In 1827,
regulations; there was ordered to be no distinction between full
dress and undress, the only distinction between the two being that
officers were allowed to wear plain blue trousers in undress. In
1829, however, a single-breasted frock coat was allowed for officers
for wear in the vicinity of their ships. This featured sleeve lace to
denote rank: a braid for midshipmen and mates, two stripes for
lieutenants, two stripes for commanders, and three stripes for
captains. Flag officers were to wear their epaulettes with the frock
coat. This garment was worn with plain blue trousers and a peaked cap
by all officers. Although short-lived (it was abolished in 1833),
this frock-coat was an important precursor and influence on later
styles of uniform, particularly in undress.
1830-1843
In
1830, the facings of the full dress coat were changed from white to
scarlet. This was the case until 1843.
1843-1846
1843
saw the return of white facings to the full dress uniforms of
commissioned officers. Lieutenants were granted two plain epaulettes
in place of the former one.
Captain Francis Crozier wearing the 1843-1846 pattern undress tailcoat with peaked cap.
Captain John
Franklin wearing the 1843-1846 pattern undress tailcoat with
cocked hat.
1846-1856
1847 saw the adoption of a
double breasted frock coat, worn in undress that featured rank lace
on the sleeves similar to the single breasted frock coat of the 1820s
and 30s. This could be worn either with the peaked cap or with the
cocked hat, sword and sword belt for more formal occasions.
Sleeve stripes were introduced for full dress and on the undress
tailcoat for all commissioned officers as well from 1856.
After
1856
Although they had always been authorized for undress
uniforms, 1878 saw a clarification of the wearing of cuff buttons
worn on the undress coats (the frock coat and undress tailcoat)this
were worn beneath the cuff stripes. For Flag Officers, the buttons
were worn between the thicker line of braid and the thinner ones
above. 1880 saw the introduction of the 'ship jacket' (similar to
today's reefer jacket) for wear at night or in inclement weather in
undress. In 1885, a white tunic, worn with white trousers and white
sun helmet and black boots, was introduced for wear in hot climates,
as well as a navy blue tunic and trousers, of the same cut, for wear
in undress in temperate climates. On both garments, rank was
initially worn on the sleeve: in white silk for the white uniform, in
gold for blue. The blue tunic was replaced by the reefer jacket in
1889. The white tunic was redesigned at the same time, with rank
being worn on shoulder-boards instead of the sleeve.
Flag officers
Main article: Admiral (Royal Navy)
Flag rank advancement in the 18th and 19th century Royal Navy was determined entirely by seniority. Initial promotion to flag rank from the rank of captain occurred when a vacancy appeared on the admirals' seniority list due to the death or retirement of a flag officer. The captain in question would then be automatically promoted to rear admiral and assigned to the first of three colored squadrons, these being the blue, white and red squadrons.
As further vacancies occurred, the British flag officer would be posted to the same rank in higher squadrons. For instance, a rear admiral of the blue squadron would be promoted to become rear admiral of the white, and then rear admiral of the red squadron. When reaching the highest position of the rank (rear admiral of the red), the flag officer would next be promoted to the rank of vice admiral, and begin again at the lowest coloured squadron (vice admiral of the blue). The process would continue again, until the vice admiral of the red was promoted to admiral of the blue. The highest possible rank was admiral of the red squadron, which until 1805 was synonymous with admiral of the fleet (originally this rank wore the same insignia as a regular admiral – a special insignia was first created in 1843).
Situations did occur where flag officers would "jump" to a higher rank in a different squadron, without serving their time in each rank of each squadron. Such was the case with William Bligh, who was promoted directly from rear admiral to vice admiral of the blue without ever having served as a rear admiral of the red or white Squadron. On the opposite, it was not possible for a higher ranked admiral in a lower squadron (i.e. vice admiral of the blue) to be demoted to a lower rank yet in a higher rated squadron (i.e. rear admiral of the red).
Some flag officers were not assigned to a squadron, and thus were referred to simply by the generic title "admiral". Formally known as "admiral without distinction of a squadron", the common term for such officers was "yellow admiral". Still another title was port admiral which was the title for the senior naval officer of a British port.
References
"National Maritime Museum". www.nmm.ac.uk. National Maritime Museum. Archived from the original on 12 December 2011. Retrieved 31 January 2015.
Lewis 1939, p. 228
Blake & Lawrence 2005, p. 71
Lewis 1939, p. 270
Lavery 1989, p. 270
Blake & Lawrence 2005, p. 72
Lewis 1939, p. 267
"Pitcairn Crew". Pitcairn Island Study Center. 2008. Retrieved 28 April 2010.
N.A.M. Rodger (2001) Commissioned officers' careers in the Royal Navy, 1690–1815, Journal for Maritime Research, 3:1, 85-129, DOI: 10.1080/21533369.2001.9668314
O'Neill 2003, p. 75
Notes
Horatio Nelson served as an able seaman aboard the Seahorse,[7] and Peter Heywood served as an able seaman aboard HMS Bounty.[8]
After 1795, blue coat with epaulettes
Commodores second class commanded their own vessels while commodores first class were appointed a captain to command their flagship
After 1795 (Commander) and 1812 (Lieutenant), blue coat with epaulettes
Acting lieutenants were normally senior midshipman who were granted wardroom status due to their tenure and experience, although the designation was also extended on occasion to masters and master's mates. One historical case of a master's mate appointed as an acting lieutenant was that of Fletcher Christian, appointed by William Bligh much to the derision of John Fryer, master of the Bounty.
In some cases, surgeon's mates were appointed aboard by the commanding officer, usually in remote or distant settings where a formal appointment was not possible
Unlike modern day navies, the Royal Navy of the 18th and 19th century did not maintain a standing enlisted force. Sailors were signed onto ships in port in order to fill manning requirements.
Sources
Blake, Nicholas; Lawrence, Richard (2005), The Illustrated Companion to Nelson's Navy, Stackpole Books, ISBN 0-8117-3275-4, OCLC 70659490
Lavery, Brian (1989), Nelson's Navy: The Ships, Men and Organization, Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, ISBN 0-87021-258-3, OCLC 20997619
Lewis, Michael (1939), England's Sea-Officers, London: George Allen & Unwin, OCLC 1084558
O'Neill, Richard (2003), Patrick O'Brian's Navy, London: Salamander Books, ISBN 0-7624-1540-1
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https://www.nps.gov/safr/learn/education/upload/Sailor_intercept.pdf
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https://margaretmuirauthor.blogspot.com/2012/11/cooking-on-wooden-sailing-ships-in.html
Cooking on wooden sailing ships in the 1700s and 1800s
Feeding the sailors in the 18th and 19th century sailing ships -
especially during voyages of discovery or times of fighting such as
the Napoleonic Wars - was on eof the most important jobs ob board
ship.
But what were the cooking stoves like? Ad was the fire a
danger on a wooden ship?
On
HM Bark Endeavour (c1770)
The fire for cooking was contained in
the fire hearth and the smoke went up the chimney through a funnel
to the weatherdeck. Cooking could be done in the oven but the pork
and beef was boiled in large round pots which sat in large round
holes on the top - next to the hanging net bags into which each
mess-table put its 6 pieces of meat and each bag was labled with the
table’s name. To prevent heat descending to the wooden deck,
beneath the fire hearth was a layer of sand with bricks, slate or
stone slabs.
Kevin Boatman Foster offered this description of
the firehearth: The fire was contained in a sheet-iron patent galley
stove. The stove usually had a hot water tank, several ovens with
sheet or cast iron doors, heating surfaces for pans and kettles
surrounded by iron pipe railings, and an iron and copper smoke pipe
equipped with a damper. It rested in an open-topped sandbox capped
with bricks. The galley stove was one of the most complicated
machines on board a sailing ship. Small vessels had smaller
sheet-iron stoves, capable of baking inside and cooking on top. The
simplest version of galley on a sailing ship was an open topped sand
box atop bricks for an open fire to heat cook pots. Those were found
on larger dhows and other vessels in the Indian ocean as recently as
the last hundred years.
The
Galley - HMS Warrior 1850 - Portsmouth Historic Dockyard – here
the galley had to cater for hundreds of men every day.
Fireheath - HMS Victory (c1770)
- replica - Portsmouth Historic Dockyard
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prize_money
Prize money
Prize money has a distinct meaning in warfare, especially naval warfare, where it was a monetary reward paid out under prize law to the crew of a ship for capturing or sinking an enemy vessel. The claims for the bounty are usually heard in a Prize Court.
This article covers the arrangements of the British Royal Navy, but similar arrangements were used in the navies of other nations, and existed in the British Army and other armies, especially when a city had been taken by storm.
Royal Navy
History
In the 16th and 17th centuries, captured ships were legally Crown property. In order to reward and encourage sailors' zeal at no cost to the Crown, it became customary to pass on all or part of the value of a captured ship and its cargo to the capturing captain for distribution to his crew. (Similarly, all belligerents of the period issued Letters of Marque and Reprisal to civilian privateers, authorising them to make war on enemy shipping; as payment, the privateer sold off the captured booty.)
This practice was formalised via the Cruisers and Convoys Act of 1708. An Admiralty Prize Court was established to evaluate claims and condemn prizes, and the scheme of division of the money was specified. This system, with minor changes, lasted throughout the colonial, Revolutionary, and Napoleonic Wars.
If the prize were an enemy merchantman, the prize money came from the sale of both ship and cargo. If it were a warship, and repairable, usually the Crown bought it at a fair price; additionally, the Crown added "head money" of 5 pounds per enemy sailor aboard the captured warship. Prizes were keenly sought, for the value of a captured ship was often such that a crew could make a year's pay for a few hours' fighting. Hence boarding and hand-to-hand fighting remained common long after naval cannons developed the ability to sink the enemy from afar.
All ships in sight of a capture shared in the prize money, as their presence was thought to encourage the enemy to surrender without fighting until sunk.
The distribution of prize money to the crews of the ships involved persisted until 1918. Then the Naval Prize Act changed the system to one where the prize money was paid into a common fund from which a payment was made to all naval personnel whether or not they were involved in the action. In 1945 this was further modified to allow for the distribution to be made to Royal Air Force (RAF) personnel who had been involved in the capture of enemy ships; however, prize claims had been awarded to pilots and observers of the Royal Naval Air Service since c. 1917, and later the RAF.
Distribution
Command structure of a Navy ship c. 1810, showing prize money groupings
The following scheme for distribution of prize money was used for much of the Napoleonic wars, the heyday of prize warfare. Allocation was by eighths. Two eighths of the prize money went to the captain or commander, generally propelling him upwards in political and financial circles. One eighth of the money went to the admiral or commander-in-chief who signed the ship's written orders (unless the orders came directly from the Admiralty in London, in which case this eighth also went to the captain). One eighth was divided among the lieutenants, sailing master, and captain of marines, if any. One eighth was divided among the wardroom warrant officers (surgeon, purser, and chaplain), standing warrant officers (carpenter, boatswain, and gunner), lieutenant of marines, and the master's mates. One eighth was divided among the junior warrant and petty officers, their mates, sergeants of marines, captain's clerk, surgeon's mates, and midshipmen. The final two eighths were divided among the crew, with able and specialist seamen receiving larger shares than ordinary seamen, landsmen, and boys.[1][2] The pool for the seamen was divided into shares, with each able seaman getting two shares in the pool (referred to as a fifth-class share), an ordinary seaman received a share and a half (referred to as a sixth-class share), landsmen received a share each (a seventh-class share), and boys received a half share each (referred to as an eighth-class share).
Awards
Perhaps the greatest amount of prize money awarded was for the capture of the Spanish frigate Hermione on 31 May 1762 by the British frigate Active and sloop Favourite. The two captains, Herbert Sawyer and Philemon Pownoll, received about £65,000 apiece, while each seaman and Marine got £482–485.[3][4][5]
The prize money from the capture of the Spanish frigates Thetis and Santa Brigada in October 1799, £652,000, was split up among the crews of four British frigates, with each captain being awarded £40,730 and the Seamen each receiving £182 4s 9¾d or the equivalent of 10 years' pay.[2]
In January 1807, the frigate Caroline took the Spanish ship San Rafael as a prize, netting Captain Peter Rainier £52,000.[4]
For more on the Prize Court during World War I, see also Maxwell Hendry Maxwell-Anderson.
The crewmen of USS Omaha hold the distinction of being the last American sailors to receive prize money, for capturing the German freighter Odenwald on 6 November 1941, just before America's entry into World War II, though the money would not be awarded until 1947.[6]
References
*Lavery, Brian (1989). Nelson's Navy: The Ships, Men and Organization. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press. pp. 135–136. ISBN 0-87021-258-3. OCLC 20997619. Retrieved 19 May 2009.
Rodger 522–524
"Capture of The Hermione". Archived from the original on 22 April 2009. Retrieved 4 August 2008.
"Nelson and His Navy – Prize Money". The Historical Maritime Society. Retrieved 4 August 2008.
W. H. G. Kingston. "How Britannia Came to Rule the Waves". Project Gutenberg. Retrieved 10 November 2010.
Nofi, Al (20 July 2008). "The Last "Prize" Awards in the U.S. Navy?" (205). Strategypage.com. "Oldenwald was taken to Puerto Rico. An admiralty court ruled that since the ship was illegally claiming American registration, there was sufficient grounds for confiscation. At that point, some sea lawyers got into the act. Observing that the attempt to scuttle the ship was the equivalent of abandoning her, they claimed that the crews of the two American ships had salvage rights, to the tune of $3 million. This led to a protracted court case, which was not settled until 1947."
Sources
Rodger, N. A. M. (2005). The Command of the Ocean: A Naval History of Britain 1649–1815. New York: W. W. Norton. ISBN 0-393-06050-0.
External links
The Gunroom, a discussion site on the Aubrey-Maturin novels with many historical links and resources
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_ensigns
French ensigns
French
Navy
(Marine Nationale)
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French ensigns |
A French ensign is the flag flown at sea to identify a vessel as French. Several such ensigns have existed over the years as well as terrestrial flags based on the ensign motif.
Current ensign
The current French ensign is not, as the casual observer would think, identical to the flag of France. Though both are blue, white and red, the French civil ensign has those colours in the proportion blue 30, white 33, and red 37. The intention is to create a flag which, when seen moving at some distance, will appear to have columns of equal width; in addition, the slightly wider red column is intended to improve the flag's visibility at sea.
The
current French ensign, with proportions different from those of the
French flag.
Historic ensigns
The royal Arms
As with the ensigns of other countries, the French ensign in the beginning of the 14th century was a banner of the royal arms, blue field with golden French lilies. Sometimes it bears a white cross.
In 1365, Charles V changed to a blue flag with just three golden French lilies. However, reports as late as 1514 still occasionally mention the use of the lilies and cross flag.
Occasionally illustrations from this era also show the white cross, now on a red field, but this is mostly limited to the coats of arms only. After 1450, however, those two designs are often seen flying side by side.
The colours of Bourbon
By the time of the House of Bourbon, the royal colours had merged making blue, red, and white the royal colours; Henry IV of France even had his entire entourage dress in these colours. These colours, for these or other reasons, also became the colours of the French ensigns. A plain white ensign indicated the French sailing fleet, a red flag a galley, while the blue flag was flown by the merchant ships. It's somewhat unclear whether all of these were plain flags. E.g. in 1661 the use of white flags on merchant ships is explicitly forbidden, pointing the merchants instead to the "old flag of the French nation", which then was supposed to be a white cross on blue, with on it the royal arms.
A decade or so later, the rule for the merchant navy was modified, however, to allow every kind of ensign, provided it wasn't all white. This caused two new types of French ensigns: regional or local flags flown as French ensign, and personal designs intended to show as much white as was possible without it being considered all white.
Standard of the French royal family
National flag and naval ensign of France prior to 1789 and between 1814/15 and 1830
The white ensign of the Artésien
A ship of the line at the Battle of Martinique in 1780
Royal Standard of the Kingdom of France
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The colours of the Revolution
Until the French Revolution most merchants flew designs composed of blue and white. In 1790, however, the revolution joined all three colours in one flag, and the new ensign became the white flag with a canton of three equal columns of red, white, and blue. Since the white field was too royal for the taste of the revolution, on 27 pluviôse year II of the French Republican Calendar (15 February 1794), the flag and the ensign were changed to the design of the current flag of France: Three columns of equal width, of blue, white, and red. The same banner was again decreed to be the flag on 7 March 1848.
To counter the effect that the fly of an ensign appears to shorten when moving in the wind, the widths of the columns were regulated anew on 17 May 1853, now as 30:33:37.
1790 to 15 February 1794
Portrait of the frigate Incorruptible flying the white flag with a tricolour canton, by Olivier Colin.
On Loutherbourg's the Glorious First of June, the Montagne flies the white flag with a tricolour canton
-
French colonial flags
Further information: French colonial flags and French colonial empire
A number of flags used by French colonies are similar to British ensigns that were adopted by colonies throughout the British Empire except that they use the French tricolour in place of the Union Flag.
Bowsprit jacks and pennants
Masthead pennant
The Jeanne d'Arc flying her masthead pennant while returning to harbour.
The masthead pennant, called flamme de guerre ("war pennant") indicates a Navy ship with a commissioned commanding officer. If applicable, this pennant is replaced with the jack of a high-ranking officer or a minister aboard,
There is a tradition that when a ship is on mission off France for more than 5 months, she lengthens her masthead pennant by one metre for each month spent away from the homeland. A notable occurrence is the cruiser Georges Leygues which sailed for Dakar on 9 September 1940 and fought with the FNFL, away from German-occupied France, until the Liberation; when she entered Toulon harbour on 13 September 1944, she is said to have flown a 60-metre long masthead pennant.
Honour and command jacks
The following jacks are flown on the masthead if a minister, general officier or division commanding officer are aboard
Jack of the Prime Minister
Jack of the Minister of Defence
Jack of the Minister of Overseas France
Jack of the Chief of the Defence Staff
Jack of the Chief of Staff of the Navy
Jack of an admiral
Jack of a Vice-amiral d'escadre
Jack of a vice-amiral
Jack of a contre-amiral
Jack of a capitaine de vaisseau commanding a division
Jack of a capitaine de vaisseau commanding a unit
harbour commanding officer (in NATO operations, the "Starboard" is used)
senior merchant navy officer (if no French warship is present)
Sources
F.E. Hulme, The Flags of the World: Their History, Blazonry, and Associations, From the Banner of the Crusader to the Burgee of the Yachtsman; Flags National, Colonial, Personal; The Ensigns of Mighty Empires; the Symbols of Lost Causes (Colonial Edition), Frederick Wayne and Co., London, pp. 152, (1895).
W.J. Gordon, Flags of the World Past and Present: Their Story and Associations, Frederick Wayne and Co., Ltd., London, pp. 265, (1929).
B. McCandless, and G. Grosvenor, "Our Flag Number", The National Geographic Magazine, National Geographic Society, Washington, D.C., Vol. XXXII, No. 4, pp. 420, October, (1917).
G. Grosvenor, and W.J. Showalter, "Flags of the World", The National Geographic Magazine, National Geographic Society, Washington, D.C., Vol. LXVI, No. 3, pp. 338–396, September, (1934).
Flags of All Nations Volume I. National Flags and Ensigns (B.R.20(1) 1955), Her Majesty's Stationery Office, London, (1955).
Flags of All Nations Volume II. Standards of Rulers, Sovereigns and Heads of State; Flags of Heads of Ministries, and of Naval, Military, and Air Force Officers (B.R.20(2) 1958), Her Majesty's Stationery Office, London, (1958).
Flags of All Nations Change Five (BR20), Her Majesty's Stationery Office, London, (1989), Revision (1999).
W. Smith, Flags Through the Ages and Across the World, McGraw-Hill Book Co., Ltd., Maidenhead, England, pp. 361, (1975).
J.W. Norie, and J.S. Hobbs, Three Hundred and Six Illustrations of the Maritime Flags of All Nations; Arranged Geographically, with Enlarged Standards: Together with Regulations and Instructions Relating to British Flags &c., Printed for, and Published by C. Wilson, At the Navigation Warehouse and Naval Academy, No. 157, Leadenhall Street, Near Cornhill, (Facsimile reprint of 1848 original), (1987).
Ottfried Neubecker, Flaggenbuch (Flg. B.). Bearbeitet und herausgegeben vom Oberkommando der Kriegsmarine. Abgesclossen am 1. December 1939, (Historical Facsimile edition containing all national and international flags 1939-1945), pp. 193, (1992).
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https://www.nps.gov/safr/learn/historyculture/historicbilgepump.htm
Notes From Ship’s Bilge Pumps; A History of their Development 1500-1900 (Thomas J. Oertling)
By Courtney Andersen, Historical Ship Rigging Supervisor
9 April 2014
Pumps were the last defense, hope, and salvation of the lives on board. A ship could lose its rig or its rudder, and still give a hope of survival, but without a working bilge pump a ship was lost.
The 18th century naval architect William Hutchinson observed that crews sometimes left ships too soon; that the ship may appear in imminent danger of foundering but was discovered hours or days later to be still afloat. After the water rises high enough to cover a leak, the rate of inflow is reduced; equilibrium is reached, and the ship often won’t go down much further, making it possible for the crew to pump and plug the leak.
With usually one or two “heads” aboard a ship, and sometimes hundreds of sailors, many sailors used the bilge as a latrine. The accumulation of filth and garbage in the hold polluted the bilges, and though a health hazard, the nature of the bilge water provided proof of whether the hull was tight:
Boteler 1634: “when it stinketh much, it is a sign that the water hath lain long in the hold of the ship; and on the contrary, when it is clear and sweet, it is a token that it comes freshly in from the sea. This stinking water therefore is always a welcome perfume to an old seaman; and he that stops his nose at it is laughed at, and held but a fresh-water man at best.”
There were basically only three types of ship bilge pump used from the 1400s to the 1800s:
--burr pumps: basically a cone-shaped leather bucket that drew water up a tube
--chain pumps: a continuous chain with small burrs or buckets to catch water and pull it up, running over upper and lower sprockets
--common or “suction” pump: the earliest representation is from 1431. Use on ships was probably from sometime in late 1400s to early 1500s. The first recorded use of metal parts in ship pumps was 1526. Usually they were made entirely of wood until the late 1700s because the only tools available for boring iron tubes were those to make cannon. In 1712, the first practical steam engine was invented by Newcomen. A steam engine needed the piston and cylinder in very tight tolerances. Initially made by hand, ground and filed…further developments in boring machines were needed before steam could progress, and it wasn’t until those machines were made that all-metal pumps could be manufactured.
Dodgson’s Patent Ship Pump 1799—similar to the pump on Balclutha, but still a common suction pump, using up-and-down pump handles to drive two pump boxes with two valves in each box.
Most of the early suction pumps rely on a moving upper one-way valve attached to a rod, and a stationary lower valve with a “claque” or one-way flap that allows water to move past it.
The pump has to be primed when there is no column of water in the tube. Water must cover the upper valve, sealing off the lower part of the tube from the air. As the piston works, the atmospheric pressure decreases in the tube. The water then rises through the lower valve because of the greater atmospheric pressure outside the tube pushing the water into the tube.
The height to which a common pump can raise water by suction is governed by barometric pressure -- about 28’ from surface of the water to the “claque” of the upper valve at the top of the stroke.
It wasn’t until the 1850s that the iron flywheel to help maintain momentum of rotation was developed to work with a camshaft to drive the two piston rods. This quickly became the standard on packets and clipper ships.
Balclutha’s pump by Robert Mills of Greenock, Scotland is an improved “force pump” design which uses a central water-filled piston chamber connected to two valve chambers. Each of these valve chambers has two heavy valves with leather gaskets. Water is drawn up past the lower valve by the piston’s suction stroke; the lower valve then seals closed; then when the piston pushes against the water in the pump case, it is pushed past the upper valve and out through the discharge “dale.” The two sets of valves means that the pump ejects water smoothly in both the up and the down motions of the piston; this is known as “double action.”
This “force pump” design was known to the Romans, but it wasn’t until metal working progressed in the mid 1800s that it became a practical shipboard pump style. A force pump differs from a common suction pump in that the valves are not located on the piston rod.
https://www.nps.gov/safr/learn/historyculture/historicbilgepump.htm
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